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Leander swimming across the Hellespont. Detail from a painting by Bernard Picart.

Swimming has been recorded since prehistoric times; the earliest recording of swimming dates back to Stone Age paintings from around 7,000 years ago. In 1578, Nikolaus Wynmann, a German professor of languages, wrote the first swimming book. Swimming was part of the first modern Olympic games which was held in 1896 in Athens. In 1908, the world swimming association, Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA), was formed. In January 2023, the name was changed from FINA to World Aquatics[1]

Swimming has also been used in political contexts and in war times as a way to defend a country throughout ancient times through into the modern era. Swimming in the Victorian and Edwardian era has also been connected to children's activities such as Boy Scouts, where many scouts had to prove themselves as competent in the water, which then lead to swimming competitions being commonplace in these children's lives. In the modern era, swimming has had an important role in the lives of children by helping to break gender norms of the 1920s, and by implementing safety regulations around water. The addition of swimming to activities like summer camp has increased self esteem and has allowed many kids to express themselves as kids by having fun. Swimming has also been impacted by equal rights movements, with the inclusion of women in the sport, and inclusion of stereotypical men's events into women's swimming.  

Ancient times

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Rock paintings from the Cave of Swimmers

Rock paintings of people with their arms and legs contorted in a swimming position were found by explorer László Almásy in a remote cave in Wadi Sura, in the south of the Gilf Kebir Plateau, Egypt. Almásy believed the figures to illustrate swimming, and therefore named the cave "The Cave of Swimmers".[2] Despite this, modern researchers such as Andras Zboray argue that the paintings are "clearly symbolic, ...with an unknown meaning.".[3] Rock paintings are hard to date, but most researchers believe they were created between 6000–9000 years ago.[2]

More references to swimming are found in the Babylonian and Assyrian wall drawings, depicting a variant of the breaststroke. The most famous drawings were found in the Kebir desert and are estimated to be from around 4000 BC. The Nagoda bas-relief also shows swimmers inside of men dating back from 3000 BC. The Indian palace Mohenjo Daro from 2800 BC contains a swimming pool sized 12 m by 7 m. The Minoan palace of Knossos in Crete also featured baths. An Egyptian tomb from 2000 BC shows a variant of front crawl. The Egyptian nomarch Kheti carved into the walls how he took swimming lessons with the king's children.[4] Swimming was also seen as an important skill in war efforts, as Julius Caesar was deemed a very good swimmer, and encouraged swimming lessons to be taken by his military, which include crossing rivers while on horse and simulating naval battles.[5] Depictions of swimmers have also been found from the Hittites, Minoans and other Middle Eastern civilizations, in the Tepantitla compound at Teotihuacan, and in mosaics in Pompeii.[6]

Written references date back to ancient times, with the earliest as early as 2000 BC. Such references occur in works like Gilgamesh, the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible (Ezekiel 47:5, Acts 27:42, Isaiah 25:11), Beowulf, and other sagas, although the style is never described. There are also many mentions of swimmers in the Vatican, Borgian and Bourbon codices. A series of reliefs from 850 BC in the Nimrud Gallery of the British Museum shows swimmers, mostly in a military context, often using swimming aids.

The Talmud, a compendium of Jewish law written compiled c. 500 CE, requires fathers to teach their sons how to swim.[7]

Early modern era

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Lifebelt sketch by Leonardo da Vinci (circa 1488–90).
The book "A short introduction for to learn to swim" - British Library

Since swimming was done in a state of undress, it became less popular as society became more conservative in the Early Modern period.[8] Leonardo da Vinci made early sketches of lifebelts.

In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a Swiss–German professor of languages, wrote the earliest known complete book about swimming, Colymbetes, sive de arte natandi dialogus et festivus et iucundus lectu (The Swimmer, or A Dialogue on the Art of Swimming and Joyful and Pleasant to Read).[9][10] His purpose was to reduce the dangers of drowning. The book contained a good methodical approach to learning breaststroke, and mentioned swimming aids such as air-filled cow bladders, reed bundles, and cork belts.[6]

In 1587, Everard Digby also wrote a swimming book, claiming that humans could swim better than fish.[11] Digby was a Senior Fellow at St. John's College, Cambridge, and was interested in the scientific method. His short treatise, De arte natandi, was written in Latin and contained over 40 woodcut illustrations depicting various methods of swimming, including the breaststroke, backstroke and crawl. Digby regarded the breaststroke as the most useful form of swimming.[12] In 1603, Emperor Go-Yozei of Japan declared that schoolchildren should swim.[13]

In 1595, Christopher Middleton wrote "A short introduction for to learn to swim", that was the first published guide recording drawings and examples of different swimming styles.

During colonial periods, many westerners could only swim well enough to survive, using what we call now breastroke, while Atlantic Africans used variations of freestyle for fishing and spear hunting.[14] Many travelers noted that the African locals were very talented swimmers, one story coming from a US Navy Officer, who detailed that five Europeans and five Kru people from Liberia were on the same boat that started to sink. All five Europeans on the boat drowned, while the Kru people were able to swim until they were saved.[15]

From 1600-1867, during the Edo period in Japan, swimming increased in popularity and saw the development of swim schools. Many shōguns encouraged and promoted swimming. The first Tokugawa shōgun, Tokugawa lesyasu was believed to have swam until he was 69 years old. Swimming was especially encouraged during the third and eighth shōgun. Nearing the end of the Edo period, increasing threat by foreign powers lead to building up the coastlines of Japan and swimming became a way to defend against enemies.[16]

In 1696, the French author Melchisédech Thévenot wrote The Art of Swimming, describing a breaststroke very similar to the modern breaststroke. This book was translated into English and became the standard reference of swimming for many years to come.[17] In 1793, GutsMuths from Schnepfenthal, Germany, wrote Gymnastik für die Jugend ("Exercise for youth"), including a significant portion about swimming. In 1794, Kanonikus Oronzio de Bernardi of Italy wrote a two volume book about swimming, including floating practice as a prerequisite for swimming studies.

In 1798, GutsMuths wrote another book Kleines Lehrbuch der Schwimmkunst zum Selbstunterricht (Small study book of the art of swimming for self-study), recommending the use of a "fishing rod" device to aid in the learning of swimming. His books describe a three-step approach to learning to swim that is still used today. First, get the student used to the water; second, practice the swimming movements out of the water; and third, practice the swimming movements in the water. He believed that swimming is an essential part of every education.[18] The Haloren, a group of salt makers in Halle, Germany, greatly advanced swimming through setting an example to others by teaching their children to swim at a very early age.

Modern era

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In 1904, a fire started onboard a New York boat, leading to 1,000 drownings.[19] This tragedy caught the attention of Wilbert E. Longfellow, who in 1914, contacted the American Red Cross and helped create their first water safety trainings.[19] As World War 1 started, and the United States entered the war, the Red Cross entered army camps to educate those who could not swim, and those who could, in how to save lives.[20] By 1922, national aquatic schools were added to the program, to train in first aid instructors and water safety officials.[20] In order to educate children, the Red Cross created a series of cartoons called Longfellow's WHALE tales, which stood for Water Habits Are Learned Early.[21] Using cartoons with short, rhyming titles was beneficial in teaching children important safety around the water.

Boy Scouts become a very important part of the lives of Victorian and Edwardian children. Swimming was implemented and was seen as a requirement to earn certain titles and badges.[22] In 1911, in order for a Boy Scout to earn the title of First Class Scout, they must swim 50 yards[22] There were three scout badges that required swimming ability during the period: the Coast Guard Badge, which required a knowledge of swimming and the ability to resuscitate a drowning victim, the Seaman Badge which required swimming 50 yards while fully clothed, and the Swimmer and Life Saver Badge which required diving, swimming 50 yards fully clothed, throwing a lifeline onto a buoy, and performing two methods of rescue for drowning victims.[22] Boy scouts kept a focus on swimming being both a life saving skill, and something that everyone should learn how to do. These requirements changed in 1912, where in order to accommodate those with health problems, the swimming portion was removed from the First Class Scout title.[22] Despite requirements being removed, Boy Scouts were still eligible and encouraged to compete in swimming competitions, like the Otter Swimming Club Challenge Shield, the Boy Scout Team Swimming Championship of London, and the Darnell Challenge Cup for Swimming and Life Saving.[22]

On July 16th 1966, the leader of China, 73 year old Mao Zedong swam in the Yangtze River as a way to encourage support for his authority, and encouraged others to practice Maoism. This event was the 11th Cross-Yangtze Swimming Contest, where 5,000 children were enrolled. Many Chinese people and foreign guests were in attendance, and none were told prior that Mao would be swimming. He swam 15 kilometers in 65 minutes, which helped dispel any doubts about his physical age and ability to lead. This swim reaffirmed people's belief in his leadership, which prepared him for war against counter-revolutionaries.[23] As a result, Mao's Communist government officials issued efforts to encourage youth and children to learn how to swim.[24]

Swimming as leisure in American Summer Camps

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American summer camps became very popular amongst children of all ages. Due to American summer camps being located mostly by bodies of water, swimming became a vital activity for campers. Swimming in particular helped the participants grow stronger and become more mature, as many of them came from cities with no opportunity for swimming [25] These camps were a way for children to have freedom with some guardrails keeping them safe.

In a day full of different activities, swimming was often said to be one of the most impactful.[26] Many campers have noted that learning to improve their stroke was a major accomplishment of their camp experience.[26] A boy from Camp Dudley in New York wrote to his mother about his accomplishment, detailing how everyone cheered for him as he jumped off the diving board and swam around.[27] According to an all girl summer camp called Kehonka, their brochure from the 1920s mentions how swimming was pushed heavily, so much so, that hardly any girls left camp without learning how to swim.[27] For young girls and teenagers at camp, swimming was seen as a way to break gender roles by engaging in athletics.[28] Swimming during this time period also had a spiritual value, as Christians who swam took spiritual growth away from the sport.[29]

Even those who could not swim stayed engaged, as they started their journey in a pen of shallow water fenced off from the rest of the lake, giving them the opportunity to learn in a "safe" environment.[30] This ended shortly however, as in the 1920s, the Red Cross began implementing water safety, which in turn appeared in the camps.[31] This implementation barred non swimmers from using boats and doing other water activities.[31]

Swimming as a competitive sport

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Swimming emerged as a competitive sport in the early 1800s in England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St George's Baths, was opened to the public.[18] By 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. The sport grew in popularity and by 1880, when the first national governing body, the Amateur Swimming Association, was formed, there were already over 300 regional clubs in operation across the country.[32]

Les Nageurs (The Swimmers), from the series Le Supreme Bon Ton, c. 1810–1815.

In 1844 a swimming competition was held in London with the participation of two Native Americans. The British competitor used the traditional breaststroke, while the Native Americans swam a variant of the front crawl, which had been used by people in the Americas for generations, but was not known to the British. The winning medal went to 'Flying Gull' who swam the 130-foot length in 30 seconds – the Native American swimming method proved to be a much faster style than the British breaststroke. The Times of London reported disapprovingly that the Native American stroke was an unrefined motion with the arms "like a windmill" and the chaotic and unregulated kicking of the legs. The considerable splashing that the stroke caused was deemed to be barbaric and "un-European" to the British gentlemen, who preferred to keep their heads over the water. Subsequently, the British continued to swim only breaststroke until 1873. The British did, however, adapt the breaststroke into the speedier sidestroke, where the swimmer lies to one side; this became the more popular choice by the late 1840s. In 1895, J. H. Thayers of England swam 100 yards (91 m) in a record-breaking 1:02.50 using a sidestroke.[18]

Sir John Arthur Trudgen picked up the hand-over stroke from South American natives he observed swimming on a trip to Buenos Aires. On his return to England in 1868, he successfully debuted the new stroke in 1873 and won a local competition in 1875. Although the new stroke was really the reintroduction of a more intuitive method for swimming, one that had been in evidence in ancient cultures such as Ancient Assyria, his method revolutionized the state of competitive swimming – his stroke is still regarded as the most powerful to use today.[33] In his stroke, the arms were brought forward, alternating, while the body rolled from side to side. The kick was a scissors kick such as that familiarly used in breaststroke, with one kick for two arm strokes, although it is believed that the Native Americans had indeed used a flutter kick. Front crawl variants used different ratios of scissor kicks to arm strokes, or alternated with a flutter (up-and-down) kick. The speed of the new stroke was demonstrated by F.V.C. Lane in 1901, swimming 100 yards (91 m) in 1:00.0, an improvement of about ten seconds compared to the breaststroke record. Due to its speed the Trudgen became very quickly popular around the world, despite all the ungentleman-like splashing.[18]

The routes taken by Webb and Bill Burgess across the English Channel, in 1875 and 1911, respectively.

Captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English Channel (between England and France), in 1875.[34] He used breaststroke, swimming 21.26 miles (34.21 km) in 21 hours and 45 minutes. His feat was not replicated or surpassed for the next 36 years, until Bill Burgess made the crossing in 1911. Other European countries also established swimming federations; Germany in 1882, France in 1890 and Hungary in 1896. The first European amateur swimming competitions were in 1889 in Vienna. The world's first women's swimming championship was held in Scotland in 1892.[35]

Nancy Edberg popularized women's swimming in Stockholm from 1847. She made swimming lessons accessible for both sexes and later introduced swimming lessons for women in Denmark and Norway.[36] Her public swimming exhibitions from 1856 with her students were likely among the first public exhibitions of women swimming in Europe[36]

In 1897, Capt. Henry Sheffield designed a rescue can or rescue cylinder, now well known as the lifesaving device. The pointed ends made it slide faster through the water, although it can cause injuries.

Title IX was signed into law in June of 1972 by President Richard Nixon[37] which ensured equal protections against discrimination in sports based upon sex in programs that received federal funding. Some of these protections included equality of opportunity in equipment, scheduling games and practices, locker rooms, and access to medical and training facilities provided for athletes. Despite being signed in 1972, the NCAA did not host it's first Women's Swimming Championship until 1982.[38]

Olympic era

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Alfréd Hajós, swimmer who won the first Olympic Gold medal.

Swimming was held at the first Olympic Games, held in 1896 in Athens[34] however, due to a lack of funds, the event was moved to a nearby bay of Piraeus.[39] Six events were planned for the swimming competition, but only four events were actually contested: 100 m, 500 m, and 1200 m freestyle and 100 m for sailors. The first gold medal was won by Alfréd Hajós of Hungary in the 100 m freestyle. Hajós was also victorious in the 1200 m event, and was unable to compete in the 500 m, which was won by Austrian Paul Neumann.

The second Olympic games in Paris in 1900 featured 200 m, 1000 m, and 4000 m freestyle, 200 m backstroke, and a 200 m team race (see also Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics). There were two additional unusual swimming events (although common at the time): an obstacle swimming course in the Seine river (swimming with the current), and an underwater swimming race. The 4000 m freestyle was won by John Arthur Jarvis in under one hour, the longest Olympic swimming race until the 10k marathon swim was introduced in 2008. The backstroke was also introduced to the Olympic Games in Paris, as was water polo. The Osborne Swimming Club from Manchester beat club teams from Belgium, France and Germany quite easily.

The Trudgen stroke was improved by Australian-born Richmond Cavill. Cavill, whose father Frederick Cavill narrowly failed to swim the English Channel, is credited with developing the stroke after observing a young boy from the Solomon Islands. Cavill and his brothers spread the Australian crawl to England, New Zealand and America. Richmond used this stroke in 1902 at an International Championships in England to set a new world record by out swimming all Trudgen swimmers over the 100 yards (91 m) in 0:58.4[40]

The Olympics in 1904 in St. Louis included races over 50 yards (46 m), 100 yards, 220 yards (200 m), 440 yards, 880 yards (800 m) and one mile (1.6 km) freestyle, 100 yards (91 m) backstroke and 440 yards (400 m) breaststroke, and the 4x50 yards freestyle relay (see also Swimming at the 1904 Summer Olympics). These games differentiated between breaststroke and freestyle, so that there were now two defined styles (breaststroke and backstroke) and freestyle, where most people swam Trudgen. These games also featured a competition to plunge for distance, where the distance without swimming, after jumping in a pool, was measured.

The Salt Lake Tribune featuring Duke Kahanamoku in 1913.

In 1908, the world swimming association Fédération Internationale de Natation Amateur (FINA) was formed.

Women were first allowed to swim in the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, competing in freestyle races. In the 1912 games, Harry Hebner of the United States won the 100 m backstroke. At these games Duke Kahanamoku from Hawaii won the 100 m freestyle, having learned the six kicks per cycle front crawl from older natives of his island. This style is now considered the classical front crawl style. The men's competitions were 100 m, 400 m, and 1500 m freestyle, 100 m backstroke, 200 m and 400 m breaststroke, and four by 200 m freestyle relay. The women's competitions were 100 m freestyle and four by 100 m freestyle relay.

The Deutsche Lebens-Rettungs-Gesellschaft (DLRG) (German lifesaving organization) was established on October 19, 1913 in Leipzig after 17 people drowned while trying to board the cruise steamer Kronprinz Wilhelm. In the same year the first elastic swimsuit was made by the sweater company Jantzen.

In 1922, Johnny Weissmuller became the first person to swim the 100 m in less than a minute, using a six kicks per cycle Australian crawl. Johnny Weissmuller started the golden age of swimming, winning five Olympic medals and 36 national championships and never losing a race in his ten-year career, until he retired from swimming and started his second career starring as Tarzan in film. His record of 51 seconds in 100-yard (91 m) freestyle stood for over 17 years. In the same year, Sybil Bauer was the first woman to break a men's world record over the 440 m backstroke in 6:24.8.

At the 1924 Summer Olympics in Paris, lane dividers made of cork were used for the first time, and lines on the pool bottom aided with orientation.

Prior to the 2020 Tokyo Olympics, the 1,500m freestyle was not a Women's event, despite the event being in circulation since 2001 World Championships.[41] Instead, women swam the 800m freestyle as their longest distance. In 2021, the women's 1,500m freestyle and the men's 800m freestyle was added to the lineup of events. Starting in 2021, the events swam in the Olympics included, for both men and women: 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1,500 meters of freestyle, 100 and 200 meters of backstroke, breaststroke, and butterfly, 200 and 400 meters of Individual Medley, which is a combination of the four strokes, and relays that include the 4x100m freestyle, 4x100m Medley, 4x200m freestyle, and the mixed 4x100m Medley relay, which consists of teams of four, with two women and two men competing on the same team.[42] 

Swimming innovation

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Graphic data for World Record Progression in Men and Women Swimming 50m-100m-200m Long and Short Course Butterfly-Backstroke-Breaststroke-Freestyle

The scientific study of swimming began in 1928 with David Armbruster, a coach at the University of Iowa, who filmed swimmers underwater.[citation needed] The Japanese also used underwater photography to research the stroke mechanics, and subsequently dominated the 1932 Summer Olympics. Armbruster also researched a problem of breaststroke where the swimmer was slowed down significantly while bringing the arms forward underwater. In 1934 Armbruster refined a method to bring the arms forward over water in breaststroke. While this "butterfly" technique was difficult, it brought a great improvement in speed. One year later, in 1935, Jack Sieg, a swimmer also from the University of Iowa developed a technique involving swimming on his side and beating his legs in unison similar to a fish tail, and modified the technique afterward to swim it face down. Armbruster and Sieg combined these techniques into a variant of the breaststroke called butterfly with the two kicks per cycle being called dolphin fishtail kick. Using this technique Sieg swam 100 yards (91 m) in 1:00.2. However, even though this technique was much faster than regular breaststroke, the dolphin fishtail kick violated the rules and was not allowed. Therefore, the butterfly arms with a breaststroke kick were used by a few swimmers in the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin for the breaststroke competitions. In 1938, almost every breaststroke swimmer was using this butterfly style, yet this stroke was considered a variant of the breaststroke until 1952, when it was accepted as a separate style with a set of rules.

Around that time another modification to the backstroke became popular. Previously, the arms were held straight during the underwater push phase, for example by the top backstroke swimmer from 1935 to 1945, Adolph Kiefer. However, Australian swimmers developed a technique where the arms are bent underwater, increasing the horizontal push and the resulting speed and reducing the wasted force upward and sideways. This style is now generally used worldwide.

In 1935 topless swimsuits for men were worn for the first time during an official competition. In 1943, the US ordered the reduction of fabric in swimsuits by 10% due to wartime shortages, resulting in the first two piece swimsuits. Shortly afterwards the bikini was invented in Paris by Louis Reard (officially) or Jacques Heim (earlier, but slightly larger).

Another modification was developed for breaststroke. In breaststroke, breaking the water surface increases the friction, reducing the speed of the swimmer. Therefore, swimming underwater increases the speed. This led to a controversy at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne, and six swimmers were disqualified as they repeatedly swam long distances underwater between surfacing to breathe. The rule was changed to require breaststroke to be swum at the surface starting with the first surfacing after the start and after each turn. However, one Japanese swimmer, Masaru Furukawa, circumvented the rule by not surfacing at all after the start, but swimming as much of the lane underwater as possible before breaking the surface. He swam all but 5 meters underwater for the first three 50 meter laps, and also swam half of the last lap underwater, winning the gold medal. The adoption of this technique led to many swimmers suffering from oxygen starvation or even some swimmers passing out during the race due to a lack of air, and a new breaststroke rule was introduced by FINA, additionally limiting the distance that can be swum underwater after the start and every turn, and requiring the head to break the surface every cycle. The 1956 Games in Melbourne also saw the introduction of the flip turn, a sort of tumble turn to faster change directions at the end of the lane.

In 1970, the first International Symposium on Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming took place.[10][43]

In 1972, another famous swimmer, Mark Spitz, was at the height of his career. During the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany, he won seven gold medals. Shortly thereafter in 1973, the first swimming world championship was held in Belgrade, Yugoslavia by the FINA.

Breaking the water surface reduces the speed in swimming. The swimmers Daichi Suzuki (Japan) and David Berkoff (America) used this for the 100 meter backstroke at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul. Berkoff swam 33 meters of the first lane completely underwater using only a dolphin kick, far ahead of his competition. A sports commentator called this a Berkoff Blastoff. Suzuki, having practiced the underwater technique for 10 years, surfaced only a little bit earlier, winning the race in 55.05. At that time, this was not restricted by FINA backstroke rules. The backstroke rules were quickly changed in the same year by the FINA to ensure the health and safety of the swimmers, limiting the underwater phase after the start to ten meters, which was expanded to 15 meters in 1991. In Seoul, Kristin Otto from East Germany won six gold medals, the most ever won by a woman.

Another innovation is the use of flip turns for backstroke. According to the rules, a backstroke swimmer had to touch the wall while lying less than 90 degrees out of the horizontal. Some swimmers discovered that they could turn faster if they rolled almost 90 degrees sideways, touched the wall, and made a forward tumble turn, pushing off the wall on their backs. The FINA has changed the rules to allow the swimmers to turn over completely before touching the wall to simplify this turn and to improve the speed of the races.

Similarly, the dolphin-kick underwater swimming technique is now also used for butterfly. Consequently, in 1998 FINA introduced a rule limiting swimmers to 15 meters underwater per lap before they must surface. After underwater swimming for freestyle and backstroke, the underwater swimming technique is now also used for butterfly, for example by Denis Pankratov (Russia) or Angela Kennedy (Australia), swimming large distances underwater with a dolphin kick. FINA is again considering a rule change for safety reasons. It is faster to do butterfly kick underwater for the first few meters off the wall than swimming at the surface. In 2005, FINA declared that you may take 1 underwater dolphin kick in the motion of a breaststroke pull-out.

Sophisticated bodyskins were banned from FINA competitions from the start of 2010 after many national swimming federations demanded the action, and leading athletes such as Michael Phelps and Rebecca Adlington criticized the suits.[44]

See also

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ "FINA becomes World Aquatics as new brand launched". World Aquatics. 2022-12-12. Retrieved 2025-02-17.
  2. ^ a b "Wadi Sura – the Cave of Swimmers". British Museum. Archived from the original on 2015-12-10. Retrieved 2015-12-08.
  3. ^ Schirber, Michael (2015-01-08). "Rock art draws scientists to ancient lakes". Astrobiology Magazine. Archived from the original on 2015-04-03.
  4. ^ Carr, Karen (6/28/2022). Shifting Currents: A world history of swimming (1st ed.). Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781789145779. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  5. ^ "A ludic history of swimming – a systematic review" (PDF). Discobolul – Physical Education, Sport and Kinetotherapy Journal: 189–207. 2023-06-30. doi:10.35189/dpeskj.2023.62.2.7.
  6. ^ a b "History of Swimming". ICN. Archived from the original on Dec 26, 2018.
  7. ^ "Kiddushin 29a". www.sefaria.org.
  8. ^ Lixey L.C., Kevin. Sport and Christianity: A Sign of the Times in the Light of Faith. The Catholic University of America Press (October 31, 2012). p. 26. ISBN 978-0813219936.
  9. ^ Escalante, Yolanda; Saavedra, Jose M. (30 May 2012). "Swimming and Aquatic Activities: State of the Art". Journal of Human Kinetics. 32 (2012): 5–7. doi:10.2478/v10078-012-0018-4. ISSN 1640-5544. PMC 3590867. PMID 23487594.
  10. ^ a b Pelayo, Patrick; Alberty, Morgan (January 2011). "The History of Swimming Research" (PDF). World Book of Swimming: From Science to Performance. Nova Science Publishers: 19–26. ISBN 978-1-61668-202-6. Archived from the original on 2021-06-29. Retrieved 2024-06-21 – via ResearchGate.
  11. ^ The title runs: De Arte Natandi libri duo, quorum prior regulas ipsius artis, posterior vero praxin demonstrationemque continet, Lond. 1587, dedicated to Richard Nourtley.
  12. ^ "News Article for 12 November 2007, "Making a Splash for 74,000 Pounds"; Early British Swimming 55 B.C.-A.D. 1719, by Nicholas Orme (University of Exeter Press:1983)". antiquestradegazette.com.
  13. ^ Cecil Colwin (2002). Breakthrough Swimming. Human Kinetics. p. 204. ISBN 9780736037778.
  14. ^ Navigating African Maritime History. Liverpool University Press. 2009-01-01. doi:10.5949/liverpool/9780986497315.003.0005. ISBN 978-0-9864973-1-5.
  15. ^ Gershon, Livia (2022-09-16). "African Swimmers in American Waters". JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 2025-02-28.
  16. ^ Niehaus, Andreas (2010-03). "Modernization and Identity Creation (1868–1920): The Evolution of Competitive Swimming in Japan". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 27 (3): 505–522. doi:10.1080/09523360903556808. ISSN 0952-3367. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  17. ^ Glenn Stout (2009). Young Woman and the Sea: How Trudy Ederle Conquered the English Channel and Inspired the World. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 13. ISBN 978-0618858682.
  18. ^ a b c d "Early History of Swimming". Archived from the original on 2013-10-13. Retrieved 2013-12-28.
  19. ^ a b "140 years of service: Millions learn to swim through Red Cross swimming and water safety program". www.redcross.org. Retrieved 2025-03-18.
  20. ^ a b "140 years of service: Millions learn to swim through Red Cross swimming and water safety program". www.redcross.org. Retrieved 2025-03-18.
  21. ^ "140 years of service: Millions learn to swim through Red Cross swimming and water safety program". www.redcross.org. Retrieved 2025-03-18.
  22. ^ a b c d e "Swimming, service to the empire and Baden-Powell's youth movements". The International Journal of the History of Sport. 24 (5): 682–692. 2007-05. doi:10.1080/09523360601183277. ISSN 0952-3367. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  23. ^ Poon, Shuk-Wah (2019-09). "Embodying Maoism: The swimming craze, the Mao cult, and body politics in Communist China, 1950s–1970s". Modern Asian Studies. 53 (5): 1450–1485. doi:10.1017/S0026749X17000804. ISSN 0026-749X. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ Carr, Karen (6/28/2022). Shifting Currents: A world history of swimming (1st ed.). Reaktion Books. ISBN 9781789145779. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  25. ^ Paris, Leslie (2008). Children's nature: the rise of the American summer camp. American history and culture. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6707-8. OCLC 156784942.
  26. ^ a b Paris, Leslie (2008). Children's nature: the rise of the American summer camp. American history and culture. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6707-8. OCLC 156784942.
  27. ^ a b Paris, Leslie (2008). Children's nature: the rise of the American summer camp. American history and culture. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6707-8. OCLC 156784942.
  28. ^ Paris, Leslie (2008). Children's nature: the rise of the American summer camp. American history and culture. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-6707-8. OCLC 156784942.
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  39. ^ Hodler, Matthew R. (2018-11-01). "Strokes of Genius: A History of Swimming". Sport History Review. 49 (2): 210–211. doi:10.1123/shr.2018-0030. ISSN 1087-1659.
  40. ^ (References: Davis and E.S. Marks Sporting Collections, Mitchell Library, Sydney; Clarkson, A. Lanes of Gold. 100 Years of the NSW Amateur Swimming Association, Lester-Townsend, 1990; Osmond, G. and Phillips, M. 'The Bloke with a Stroke. Alick Wickham, the "Crawl" and Social Memory, The Journal of Pacific History, Vol. 39, No. 3, 2004: Delany, B. 'The Legendary Cavills', A.M., 19 January 1954, pp. 36 – 39)
  41. ^ [Katie Ledecky breezes to first women’s Olympic 1500m freestyle gold. (2021, July 28). Olympics.com. https://www.olympics.com/en/news/katie-ledecky-breezes-to-first-womens-olympic-1500m-freestyle-gold "Katie Ledecky breezes to first women's Olympic 1500m freestyle gold"]. Olympics. 07/27/2021. Retrieved 02/27/2025. {{cite news}}: Check |url= value (help); Check date values in: |access-date= and |date= (help)
  42. ^ "Swimming". Olympics.
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  44. ^ "Hi-tech suits banned from January". BBC Sport. 31 July 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2012.
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